Finally, alcohol exposure in utero significantly interferes with the development of T cells and B cells, which ultimately might increase risk for infections during adulthood. In contrast to the devastating effects of chronic alcohol abuse, a few studies have shown that moderate alcohol consumption increases the number of T cells; improves T-cell cytokine production; and enhances immune response to vaccines in humans, nonhuman primates, and rodents. The human gut is the largest organ with immune function in our body, responsible for regulating the homeostasis of the intestinal barrier. A diverse, complex and dynamic population of microorganisms, called microbiota, which exert a significant impact on the host during homeostasis and disease, supports this role.
If you do choose to imbibe, it’s best to avoid binge drinking and stick to CDC Guidelines — consuming no more than one drink per day for women or up to two drinks per day for men. “It is anticipated that binge drinking will weaken the immune system’s response to Covid-19,” Sarkar says. Alcohol addiction is a leading risk factor for personal death and disability.
Effects on CD4+ (Helper) T-Cells
Another aspect of cell-mediated immunity that is affected by ethanol consumption is the delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response. DTH refers to a cutaneous T-cell–mediated inflammatory reaction that takes 2 to 3 days to develop. One early study (Lundy et al. 1975) showed defects in cell-mediated immunity in male alcoholic patients admitted for detoxification, in response both to a new antigen and to an antigen to which they had previously been exposed. A more recent study (Smith et al. 2004) reported that a negative correlation existed between the amount of alcohol consumed by the participants and the size of DTH skin test responses to a specific antigen (i.e., keyhole limpet hemocyanin). For instance, genetically modified BALB/c mice that carried a TCR specific for the ovalbumin peptide and were fed a diet containing 30 percent ethanol- derived calories exhibited decreased antigen-specific Th1 responses (Waltenbaugh et al. 1998).
Thus, dendritic cells play a crucial role in linking innate and adaptive immune responses. Lastly, NK cells are abundant in the liver (Gao et al. 2009) and recognize cells that have low levels of a protein called class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on their surface. This reduced class I MHC expression can result from infection with certain types of viruses. NK cells eliminate cells with low class I MHC expression as well as cancer cells. Numerous analyses also have evaluated the effects of ethanol exposure on the development of B cells.
Long-Term Changes in the Immune System of a Regular Drinker
In fact, the National Institute on Alcohol and Abuse and Alcoholism explains that one episode of drinking can cause problems. An individual who drinks small amounts of alcohol will have a suppressed immunity for a short amount of time. — Some research suggests no amount of alcohol is good for you, while other studies say moderate drinking may actually boost immune function more than teetotalling. Alcohol also influences the functions of the lymphoid tissue and alter the activation, secretion, and functions of crucial immune cells called lymphocytes.
Another mechanism contributing to ethanol-induced apoptosis in human T cells could involve down-regulation of the vitamin D receptor (VDR). VDR normally reduces expression of a signaling molecule called renin angiotensin (RAS) (Li et al. 2004). Lowered RAS levels in turn induce dysregulation of the mitochondria (Kimura et al. 2005) and enhance production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can damage various molecules in the cells (Iuchi et al. 2003). Naïve human T cells produce low levels of VDR, but expression is increased to moderate levels in activated T cells (Irvin et al. 2000). Human T cells incubated in vitro with variable concentrations of ethanol (0, 10, 25, and 50mM for 24 hours) showed a reduced expression of the VDR, accompanied by increased expression of RAS and ROS as well as increased T-cell death (Rehman et al. 2013).
Resources for alcohol use disorder and treatment
The effects of chronic alcohol exposure are not limited to phenotypic changes in T cells but also include T-cell functions. Among other reactions, LPS injection normally triggers lymphocyte migration out of the circulation and into tissues and the lymphatic system (Percival and Sims 2000). In water- or wine-consuming mice, LPS injection, as expected, led to a 50 percent reduction in the number does alcohol suppress immune system of lymphocytes in the peripheral blood, indicating their mobilization into tissues. In contrast, the ethanol-consuming mice exhibited no change in the frequency of certain circulating lymphocytes (i.e., CD3 cells) after LPS injection, suggesting that chronic alcohol consumption may potentially impair the ability of lymphocytes to migrate out of circulation (Percival and Sims 2000).
Primates have a threelayer adrenal cortex with cortisol being the primary glucocorticoid produced in the zona fasciculata (Nguyen and Conley 2008), which is released in response to stress (O’Connor, O’Halloran et al. 2000). Corticosterone is the main glucocorticoid involved in the regulation of stress responses in rodents (Smith and Vale 2006). In addition to these changes in cytokine function, investigators also have shown a contribution of barrier dysfunction to the postinjury increase in infections in intoxicated people (Choudhry et al. 2004).
After a child reaches the age of three, the bacterial composition of gut microbiota remains reasonably stable and is unique to everyone depending on different factors like genetics, diet, and different environmental factors. A healthy gut microbiota is characterized by its richness and diversity in its composition [4]. Nevertheless, studies have shown that the normal gut microbiota comprises mainly Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes as the dominant phyla, followed by Actinobacteria and Verrucomicrobia. These gut commensals play an important role in specific functions like nutrient and drug metabolism, protection against pathogens, maintenance of structural integrity of gut mucosal barrier, among others [5,6]. Vitamin E is one of the most effective antioxidants and its deficiency exacerbates freeradical damage impairing the ability of T cells to respond to pathogenic challenge (Mocchegiani, Costarelli et al. 2014). Similarly, vitamin C, also an antioxidant, is important for phagocytic activity of neutrophils and monocytes, and enhances T cell responses (Strohle and Hahn 2009).